The Land and ResourcesScotland has a very irregular coastline. The western coast in particular is deeply penetrated by numerous arms of the sea, most of which are narrow submerged valleys, known locally as sea lochs, and by a number of broad indentations, generally called firths. The principal firths are the Firth of Lorne, the Firth of Clyde, and Solway Firth. The major indentations on the eastern coast are Dornoch Firth, Moray Firth, the Firth of Tay, and the Firth of Forth. Measured around the various firths and lochs, the coastline of Scotland is about 3700 km (about 2300 miles) long. Physiographic RegionsThe terrain of Scotland is predominantly mountainous but may be divided into three distinct regions, from north to south: the Highlands, the Central Lowlands, and the Southern Uplands. More than one-half of the surface of Scotland is occupied by the Highlands, the most rugged region on the island of Great Britain. Consisting of parallel mountain chains with a general north-eastern-southwestern trend and broken by deep ravines and valleys, the Highlands are noted for their scenic grandeur. Precipitous cliffs, moorland plateaux, mountain lakes, sea lochs, swift-flowing streams, and dense thickets are common to the Highlands, the most sparsely inhabited section of Scotland. The region is divided in two by a depression, known as the Glen More, or Great Glen, which extends from Moray Firth to Loch Linnhe. To the north-west of this lie heavily eroded peaks with fairly uniform elevations ranging from 610 to 915 m (about 2000 to 3000 ft). In the Highlands south-east of the Great Glen the topography is highly diversified. This region is traversed by the Grampian Mountains, the principal mountain system of Scotland. The highest peak of the Grampians is Ben Nevis (1343 m/4406 ft), the highest summit in Great Britain. The Grampian Mountains form the natural division between the Lowlands and Highlands. They extend through the centre of Scotland in a southwestern to northeastern direction. At the western extremity of the mountain mass is Ben Nevis, the highest peak in Great Britain, which rises 1343 m (4406 ft) above sea level. The other chief summits are
The principal rivers rising in the Grampian Mountains are the Findhorn, Spey, Don, Dee, South Esk, Tay, and Forth. The mountains present a generally bold aspect, but in places they slope gradually, affording excellent pasturage. In the north the mountains are more rugged and difficult to traverse. Among the famous passes through them are those of Aberfoyle and Killiecrankie. The Grampians contain the finest deer forests in Scotland. The name of the mountains was derived from the Mons Graupius, mentioned by the Roman historian Cornelius Tacitus as the site of a battle where the Roman statesman and general Gnaeus Julius Agricola defeated the Caledonians in AD 84. To the south of the Highlands lies the Central Lowlands, a narrow belt comprising only about one-tenth of the area of Scotland, but containing the majority of the country's population. The Central Lowlands are traversed by several chains of hills, including the Ochil and Sidlaw hills, and by several important rivers, notably the Clyde, Forth, and Tay. The terrain of the Southern Uplands, a region much less elevated and rugged than the Highlands, consists largely of a moorland plateau traversed by rolling valleys and broken by mountainous outcroppings. Only a few summits in the Southern Uplands exceed 762 m (2500 ft) in elevation, the highest being Merrick (843 m/2765 ft) in the south-west. Adjoining the Southern Uplands region along the boundary with England are the Cheviot Hills. Rivers and LakesScotland is characterised by an abundance of streams and lakes (lochs). Notable among the lakes, which are especially numerous in the central and northern regions, are Loch Lomond (the largest), Loch Ness, Loch Tay, and Loch Katrine. Many of the rivers of Scotland, in particular the rivers in the west, are short, torrential streams, generally of little commercial importance. The longest river of Scotland is the Tay; the Clyde, however, is the principal navigational stream, site of the port of Glasgow. Other chief rivers include the Forth, Tweed, Dee, and Spey. River ClydeThe Clyde is about 160 km (about 100 miles) long, noted for beautiful scenery. It rises as a mountain stream in the Lowther Hills in southern Scotland and drains an area of some 3835 sq km (some 1480 sq miles). It flows in a northerly direction through an agricultural area noted for orchards and as the original home of the Clydesdale breed of horses. The river then turns northwest into the central mining and industrial district of Scotland, flowing near or through the towns and cities of Lanark, Hamilton, Rutherglen, Glasgow, Renfrew, Clydebank, and Dumbarton. Near Dumbarton it expands into an estuary, the Firth of Clyde. Near Lanark, extending for about 6 km (about 4 miles), it drops by the largest falls in Scotland: the Bonnington Linn, Corra Linn, Dundaff, and Stonebyres Linn. The total descent is about 70 m (about 230 ft); Corra Linn, the grandest fall, descends 26 m (84 ft) in three cascades. From the source to the falls the Clyde is a fishing stream, but from the falls to the mouth it is the most important commercial water route of Scotland. The Firth of Clyde, which is navigable by the largest vessels, is about 103 km (about 64 miles) long and 1.6 km (1 miles) to about 56 km (about 35 miles) wide at the mouth. It is connected to the Atlantic Ocean and the Irish Sea by the North Channel. Near Renfrew is the junction of the Clyde with the Forth and Clyde Canal, which connects the Firth of Clyde with the Firth of Forth on the eastern coast of Scotland. The falls of the Clyde furnish power for many mills, especially textile mills. Shipbuilding yards once thrived on the Clyde; however, the yards declined after World War II (1939-1945) due to expanded foreign competition. River ForthThe Forth rises near Aberfoyle at the juncture of the Avondhu River and Duchray Water. It drains an area of about 1670 sq km (about 645 sq miles). It is joined by the Teith River at Stirling and then flows northeast, widening into the Firth of Forth. The total length of the river is about 106 km (about 66 miles). The firth extends about 77 km (about 48 miles) to the North Sea and is about 28 km (about 17.5 miles) wide at its mouth. At Queensferry the river is spanned by the Forth Bridge, a cantilever railway bridge built in 1890. Nearby is the Forth Road Bridge, a suspension bridge built in 1964. The Forth is navigable to Alloa by vessels of up to about 300 gross tons; it is navigable as far inland as Stirling by vessels of up to about 100 tons. The firth is connected to the Firth of Clyde by the Forth and Clyde Canal. Bo'ness, Burntisland, Grangemouth, Kirkcaldy, and Leith are the principal ports on the Firth of Forth. Important salmon and herring fisheries and resorts are located along the lower course of the Forth River. Island GroupsHebrides or Western IslandsAn archipelago of about 500 islands, area, 7511 sq km (2900 sq m) in western Scotland, in the Atlantic Ocean. The islands are divided into two groups, the Outer Hebrides and the Inner Hebrides, by the North Minch and Little Minch straits and the Sea of the Hebrides. The Outer Hebrides form Western Isles Area, and the Inner Hebrides are divided between Highland and Strathclyde regions. The chief islands of the Outer Hebrides, which extend about 210 km (about 130 mi) from north to south, are Lewis with Harris, North Uist, South Uist, and Barra. The distance from the northern to the southern extremity of the Outer Hebrides is about 210 km. The largest of the Inner Hebrides is Skye, and the other important islands of the group are Mull, Islay, Jura, Tiree, and Coll. Fewer than 100 of the Hebrides are populated, and most of the inhabitants live on Lewis with Harris, Skye, and Islay. The population as a whole is declining through emigration, especially to Canada. The climate of the Hebrides is comparatively mild. The archipelago has a rocky terrain, which is broken by many bogs, moors, lakes, and valleys. The only forests of importance are on Lewis with Harris, Skye, Mull, and Jura islands. Approximately 101,170 hectares (about 250,000 acres) of the total area are arable. Fishing, the raising of livestock, and tourism during the summer months are the principal occupations. Other economic activities include the growing of oats and potatoes, distilling, quarrying, and the production of woolen textiles, especially Harris tweed. Regular boat and air connections are maintained between the mainland and the principal islands. The largest town in the Western Islands is Stornoway (population, 1981, 8660), on the island of Lewis with Harris. In ancient times the archipelago was known as the Hebudae or the Ebudae. In 563, the Irish missionary St. Columba also called Colum or Columcille (circa 521-97), established a Celtic monastery on the tiny island of Iona in the Inner Hebrides. Saint Columba, an Irish missionary, known as the apostle of Caledonia, was born in county Donegal. His father was a kinsman of princes then reigning in Ireland and western Scotland; his mother was also of royal blood. He studied under St. Finnian at Clonard. About 546 he founded Derry, now the city of Londonderry, and, about 552, he established Durrow Monastery, now in county Offaly. Setting out in 563, at the age of 42, and accompanied by 12 disciples, St. Columba established a community on the island of Iona. He then attempted to convert to Christianity the Pictish tribes that inhabited the area beyond the Grampian Mountains. St. Columba's missionary activities were highly successful; he and his disciples seem to have traveled the Pictish mainland (now Scotland), the Hebrides, and the Orkneys, establishing mission stations. The parent house of Iona exercised supremacy over all the monasteries that St. Columba had built, as well as over those founded by his disciples in northern England. He spent about 34 years organizing his ecclesiastical system in Scotland. His feast day is 9th June. During the 8th century the islands were invaded by the Norsemen, and Norway retained control of the Hebrides until 1266, when the archipelago was transferred to Scotland. During the next few centuries, Scottish chieftains, primarily the leaders of the clans MacDougall and MacDonald, ruled the islands. The royal house of Scotland gradually reduced the influence of the chieftains and gained full authority over the Hebrides in 1748. The Scottish novelist Sir Walter Scott, whose Lord of the Isles (1815) dealt with the Hebrides, and several other Scottish and English authors have given vivid portrayals of the islands. Orkney IslandsA group of about 90 islands and islets, area, 905 sq km (349 sq m); population (1991) 19,450 in northern Scotland, constituting Orkney Island Area (an administrative region), separated from the northern coast of the Scottish mainland by the Pentland Firth. The administrative center and largest town is Kirkwall, on Mainland (or Pomona), the largest of the islands. Other major islands include Hoy, Sanday, Westray, Stronsay, and South Ronaldsay. The islands are generally low lying and treeless, and fewer than 30 are inhabited. Soils are fertile, and agriculture, the chief economic activity, is productive. Many of the islands have brochs (Pictish stone towers) and other relics of prehistoric habitation. The sea basin Scapa Flow, is about 24 km (about 15 mi) long, 13 km (8 mi) wide, and contains several islets. Scapa Flow was the principal naval base of the British during World War I and World War II. The German fleet that surrendered to the Allies in November 1918 was interned at Scapa Flow. On June 21, 1919, one week before the Versailles Treaty was signed, the German crew scuttled the German ships, preventing their subsequent use by the Allies. On October 14, 1939, during World War II, a German U-boat penetrated the supposedly secure harbour of Scapa Flow and sank the battleship HMS Royal Oak. Shetland IslandsAn archipelago, area, 1429 sq km (552 sq mi); population (1991 preliminary) 22,017 in northern Scotland, in the North Atlantic Ocean, constituting Shetland Island Area (an administrative region), northeast of the Orkney Islands. The archipelago consists of about 100 rugged islands and islets, of which only 19 are inhabited. Mainland is the largest of the group. Other important islands are Yell, Unst, Fetlar, Whalsay, Bressay, Muckle Roe, and Fair Isle. Lerwick, on Mainland, is the administrative center and the largest town. The chief industry is fishing, and the islanders also raise cattle and sheep and cultivate crops for their own use. Principal exports are the famous Shetland ponies and the wool, knitwear, and hosiery that is manufactured by the women. In the 8th and 9th centuries the Shetland Islands were invaded by the Vikings, who ruled them until 1472, when they were added to the domains of the kings of Scotland. In November 1939 the islands were the target of the first German air raids on Great Britain in World War II. Lack of industry and high unemployment caused the islands' population to decline after 1871. Before 1975 the Shetland Islands constituted Zetland County, Scotland. ClimateLike the climate of the rest of Great Britain, that of Scotland is subject to the moderating influences of the surrounding seas. As a result of these influences, extreme seasonal variations are rare, and temperate winters and cool summers are the outstanding climatic features. Low temperatures, however, are common during the winter season in the mountainous districts of the interior. In the western coastal region, which is subject to the moderating effects of the Gulf Stream, conditions are somewhat milder than in the east. The average January temperature of the eastern coastal region is 3.9° C (39° F), and the average January temperature of the western coastal region is 3.1° C (37.5° F); corresponding July averages are 13.8° C (56.8° F) and 15° C (59° F). The average January and July temperatures for the city of Edinburgh are 3.5° C (38° F) and 14.5° C (58° F), respectively. Precipitation, which is marked by regional variations, ranges from about 3810 mm (about 150 in) annually in the western Highlands to about 635 mm (about 25 in) annually in certain eastern areas. Plant and Animal LifeThe most common species of trees indigenous to Scotland are oak and conifers — chiefly fir, pine, and larch. Large forested areas, however, are rare, and the only important woodlands are in the southern and eastern Highlands. Except in these wooded areas, vegetation in the elevated regions consists largely of heather, ferns, mosses, and grasses. Saxifrage, mountain willow, and other types of alpine and arctic flora occur at elevations above 610 m (2000 ft). Practically all of the cultivated plants of Scotland were imported from America and the European continent. The only large indigenous mammal in Scotland is the deer. Both the red deer and the roe deer are found, but the red deer, whose habitat is the Highlands, is by far the more abundant of the two species. Other indigenous mammals are the hare, rabbit, otter, ermine, pine marten, and wildcat. Game birds include grouse, blackcock, ptarmigan, and waterfowl. The few predatory birds include the kite, osprey, and golden eagle. Scotland is famous for the salmon and trout that abound in its streams and lakes. Many species of fish, including cod, haddock, herring, and various types of shellfish, are found in the coastal waters. Natural ResourcesScotland, like the rest of the island of Great Britain, has significant reserves of coal. It also possesses large deposits of zinc, chiefly in the south. The soil is generally rocky and infertile, except for that of the Central Lowlands. Northern Scotland has great hydroelectric power potential and contains Great Britain's largest hydroelectric generating stations including those at Ben Cruachan and Glen Cannich. Beginning in the late 1970s, offshore oil deposits in the North Sea became an important part of the Scottish economy.
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