Norman Crossbows

Reproduction Crossbows

Most readily available reproduction and re-enactment crossbows are based on designs used from the 14th century onwards, having steel prods. To date I have found little detailed information on building early medieval period cross bows, with nothing at all on wooden prod dimensions and draw weights. So, if no one else has published anything, looks like I'll have to .....

• The Skåne Lockbow
• Conjectural 12th/13th Century crossbow
• A Rampart bow (work in progress)

Crossbow History

Crossbows have been around for a long time, with records of crossbows in China from the 6th century BC, reaching Europe at the time of the Roman Empire. The Romans developed this as a large siege weapon, the arcabalista. Very little reference material exists from the Roman period until until the 10th century. William the Conqueror used crossbowmen when he invaded England in 1066, after which the use of the crossbows was prevelant throughout Europe.

The crossbow does not appear in the Bayeaux Tapestry but it is noted as being present at the battle of Hastings by the contemporary chronicler Guy of Amiens in his "Carmen de Hastingae proelio" in 1068.

The crossbow had the big advantage over the longbow in that it required little training to use. Its main disadvantage was that it was slow to reload and could not achieve the high rate of fire of the bow. The crossbowman was vulnerable when he was reloading, to this end a large rectangular shield (pavise) was carried slung on the back, and would be proped up in front of him before combat began - only appearing to take a shot. The crossbow tended to be a weapon of siege, weherease the longbow was eventually favoured (at least in England) as the weapon for the open battlefield

In 1100 King William II of England was killed with a crossbow by Sir Waiter Tyrrel in an alleged hunting accident. By 1138 the Holy Roman Emperor Conrad III of Germany outlawed the use of the crossbow, and in 1139 Pope Innocent II issued an anathema against "the deadly art, hated by God, of crossbowmen..." This only applied to the use of crossbows against fellow Christians, so saracens were still fair game. The anathema failed to stop the rise of crossbows - Richard the Lion-Heart was killed at the siege of Chaluz in 1199 by infection from a a crossbow bolt in the neck. King John included many crosbowmen in his castle garrisons, one of the clauses of the Magna Carta (1215) bound him to banish from the kingdom all foreign crossbowmen.

A crossbow is relatively inefficient compared to a longbow - the short draw length (8 inches for the crossbow, 28+ for a longbow), means that the prod (bow part) must be more powerful to achieve range. This in turn requires more effort to reload. A longbow can loose 10-12 arrows per minute, a crossbow will be lucky to get off 2-4. However, it takes years of training to use a longbow well, a crossbow can be mastered in a couple of days.

Parts of a 12th/13th Century Crossbow

The body of the crossbow, to which the prod (bow part) is attached. Usually made of a hardwood such as ash, oak, cherry or pear. In use, the back of the tiller was rested on the top of the shoulder, unlike it's modern equivelent.

The bow part of the crossbow, which must safely store energy as the bow is cocked, to be transmitted to the bolt when the weapon is loosed. Due to the short length of the prod, and the short draw length, a crossbow is relatively inefficient. This leads to the need for a prod of high draw weight. Three main materials were used for making the prod:

• Wood. Yew would generally be used, for the same reasons it is used to make longbows. The dark heartwood is good in compression and makes the belly of the prod (side toward the operator), the light sapwood is good in tension and makes the back of the prod (side toward the target). In order to increase draw weight, the wood prod must be made more massive - this in turn limits the speed at which the tips move and hence the velocity of the projectile. For higher power and longer range, something else was needed...
• Composite. Some time in the 12th century, after the early Crusades, a new form of prod appears which is based on the principles of the asiatic composite bow. A wooden core has compressible horn attached to the belly side, and elastic animal sinew on the back. The components are glued together using fish or hide glues, the whole process taking several months in order to let the glue dry thoroughly. As these glues are susceptible to absorbing moisture, the whole prod is waterproofed by a layer of painted parchment, birch bark, or even snakeskin.
• Steel. As smithing skills improved to enable consistent production of larger pieces of spring tempered steel, the material was used to produce prods of even higher draw weight. The earliest recorded use is in 1314, which is outside the period we depict, so will not be discussed further.

Needs to be able to hold the considerable force of the bent prod, but allow an easy release without adversely affecting the aim of the weapon.

• Rising Pin (push rod). Used on early crossbows, the string is held in a groove cut across the tiller. The string is pushed out of the groove by a wooden peg or pin, the string striking the back of the bolt.
• Roller Lock (rotating nut). A socket, called the saddle, is cut into the top of the tiller, in which sits a cylindrical nut made of horn or bone. Material from the base of a stags horn, adjoining the skull, was favoured, it is strong but light. The string is held in place in a cutout in the rear of the nut, and the nut is prevented from rotating by the trigger lever (tickler). When the trigger is released, the nut is free to rotate, releasing the string. The nut generally has two "fingers" that hold the bolt against the string. A small hardened metal insert call a sear protects the nut from wear by the tickler. On early crossbows, the saddle is simply cut into the wood of the tiller, the nut resting against this without any form of pivot, it may be tied to the tiller through a central hole to stop it getting lost. Later variants use horn or antler to line the saddle to reduce friction, and the nut is fitted onto a central pin on which it rotates.

The lever used to operate the release is the "tickler". On rising pin crossbows this would generally be of wood, on roller lock types it would be made of forged iron.

The binding that secures the prod to the tiller (and also the stirrup to the tiller in later models). Any hole or fixing attached directly to the prod will weaken it, so it is merely tied to the tiller.

Early crossbows were cocked by resting feet on the centre of the prod, and drawing the string by hand. Later a stirrup was added to aid this process (either for one foot, or for both feet on more larger and powerful crossbows).

The string is an important piece of the crossbow, often overlooked. It must be able to withstand the force of the drawn prod, and transfer the maximum energy to the projectile. The diameter of the projectile, depth of the track in which it runs, diameter of the string, and dimensions of the nut must all be matched for reliable operation and maximum efficiency. The string is comprised of multiple strands in the form of a continuous loop (there is a knot in there somewhere). The strands must all be the same length and not cross to allow the force to be evenly distributed between them. Thicker cord is wound around this (servings) to form the reinforced end loops that fit to the prod, and the centre serving that contacts the projectile.

Payne-Galway and Paterson have detailed information on string making, Paterson is better, but is more difficult to find as it is a limited edition.

As composite prods were developed with higher draw weights, it became impossible to draw back the string by hand (using the arm muscles) alone. The "belt and claw" was developed at about the end of the 12th century - a hook hanging from a wide belt around the crossbowman's waist. The foot was placed in the stirrup, and the body bent to engage the string in the hook on the belt. As the body was straightened, the string was drawn to the cocked position using the strong back and thigh muscles. The device itself provides no mechanical advantage, just allows stronger muscles to be utilised. Other reloading aids used on later crossbows are listed below, but we have no evidence for their use in the period we depict:

• Cord and Pulley.A cord with ends attached to the crossbow butt and user's belt running through a pulley attached to the bowstring; provides mechanical advantage of 2:1.
• Bendling Lever (Goat's Foot Lever). A hinged lever that pushes the string back using lugs or a ring mounted at front of crossbow; provides mechanical advantage of about 5:1, depending on the length of the lever.
• Cranequin. Cocking device using a rack and pinion; can provide mechanical advantage of about 145:1, varying with size and number of teeth. The earliest known illustration is 1373.

The arrow thingy - 13-16 inches long, about half an inch diameter, with between two and four fletchings of feathers, parchment or leather. Various heads were used: bodkin for armour penetration, fire, broadhead, blunts (for hunting small game). The normal stubby diamond shaped head is called a quarrel, though this term is often applied to bolts in general. Bolts for warfare could weigh in at a hefty 2-3 ounces (50-75 grammes). The rear of the bolt has no nock as an arrow does, merely a flat surface for the string to bear on. The point of the bolt is used as a front sight - most illustrations from the period appear to show the point of the bolt overhanging the end of the tiller.

The Crossbow in Re-enactment

Bolts fitted with archery blunts (preferably of the reinforced type) are used for re-enactment purposes.

The primary issue of use of crossbows for reenactment purposes that of appropriate draw weight. Due to the short draw length, a crossbow generally needs a heavier draw weight than a bow for the same range (simplistically speaking). Most UK reenactment groups limit bows for battle field use to 30 lbs at 28 inches draw. A crossbow with this low draw weight is not going to have any significant range at all. A higher draw weight poses significant safety issues, especially at close range as the draw length is fixed and you cannot compensate for the proximity of the target as you can with a bow. Use of the high angle lob shot is feasible, but would not be at all authentic for a crossbow, "real" shots generally being direct in nature within the point blank range of the weapon.

UK Legal Position

The use of crossbows within the UK is governed by the Crossbow Act 1987. In summary, this states that:

• A cross bow is defined as "a form of bow in which the bow-stave (prod) is fixed crosswise to a stock, capable of discharging a projectile" - this definition therefore includes crossbows used for re-enactment purposes. Note that if a crossbow has a barrel (later period bullet shooting crossbows), it may be subject to firearms legislation.
• The act applies to crossbow "of a draw weight of 1.4kg or greater" (i.e. all but toys).
• "It is an offence to sell or hire a crossbow to any young person under the age of 17, both for buyer and seller."
• "It is an offence for any young person under 17 to possessing a crossbow or its components unless supervised by someone aged 21 or over".
• Crossbows may also be considered potentially "offensive weapons" for the purposes of section 1 of the Prevention of Crime Act 1953. This makes it an offence to possess any offensive weapon in a public place without lawful authority or reasonable excuse, proof whereof lies on the individual.